ADDITIONAL SYSTEM INFORMATION :
# Java version
java version "16.0.2" 2021-07-20
Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment (build 16.0.2+7-67)
Java HotSpot(TM) 64-Bit Server VM (build 16.0.2+7-67, mixed mode, sharing)

# Operating system details
$ cat /etc/*release
DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu
DISTRIB_RELEASE=20.04
DISTRIB_CODENAME=focal
DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS"
NAME="Ubuntu"
VERSION="20.04.2 LTS (Focal Fossa)"
ID=ubuntu
ID_LIKE=debian
PRETTY_NAME="Ubuntu 20.04.2 LTS"
VERSION_ID="20.04"
HOME_URL="https://www.ubuntu.com/"
SUPPORT_URL="https://help.ubuntu.com/"
BUG_REPORT_URL="https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/"
PRIVACY_POLICY_URL="https://www.ubuntu.com/legal/terms-and-policies/privacy-policy"
VERSION_CODENAME=focal
UBUNTU_CODENAME=focal

$ uname -a
Linux zzq-ThinkPad-T470 5.4.0-77-generic #86-Ubuntu SMP Thu Jun 17 02:35:03 UTC 2021 x86_64 x86_64 x86_64 GNU/Linux

A DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM :
Different outputs of the attached program are observed between different compilation tiers. This bug affects Oracle 1.8.0_301, 11.0.12, 16.0.2 and early access build 17-ea+32-2679 and 18-ea+7-288.

STEPS TO FOLLOW TO REPRODUCE THE PROBLEM :
# Compile
$ javac C.java

# Default or compilation up to level 4
$ java C

EXPECTED VERSUS ACTUAL BEHAVIOR :
EXPECTED -
10000
ACTUAL -
# Non-deterministic
5597

---------- BEGIN SOURCE ----------
# C.java
(Attached.)
public class C {

    static String m() {
        StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder(-1);
        return sb.toString();
    }

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        int sum = 0;
        for (int i = 0; i < 10_000; ++i) {
            try {
                m();
            } catch (Throwable e) {
                sum += 1;
            }
        }
        System.out.println(sum); // should be 10_000
    }
}
---------- END SOURCE ----------

CUSTOMER SUBMITTED WORKAROUND :
# Compilation up to level 1
$ java -XX:TieredStopAtLevel=1 C
# Output (correct)
10000

# Interpreter or compilation up to level 0
$ java -Xint C
# Output (correct)
10000

FREQUENCY : always